In connection with global environmental changes associated with increasing anthropogenic impact, questions related to the sustainability of various biological systems are increasingly arising.

In a sense, the group of mammals can be considered one of such systems. Questions about their sustainability are important because they are a significant element in ecological systems and an integral attribute of human life. Such groups of mammals as ungulates and fur-bearing animals have always been very important for humans. They have long been used as a source of animal protein, fat, leather, fur and other valuable products. In addition, these organisms contributed to the development of such important aspects of human life as animal husbandry and agriculture. The modern importance of mammals in connection with the development of new technologies has not decreased at all, but on the contrary has increased.

Despite such an important place occupied by mammals in the life of humans and nature, they have been little studied in terms of sustainability as a system. A historical approach can help resolve these issues. In its history, nature has a number of changes of a crisis nature. Therefore, the study of the development process and “behavior” of various biological systems under extreme conditions is by far the most promising direction.

Despite the obvious importance of studying these issues, research into the paleontological remains of animals in the Urals began relatively recently, only in the twentieth century. These studies are important due to the fact that they would help to identify patterns in the development of ecosystems in these areas, and at the same time, indicate climate changes in this area during the period under study.

The basin of the Chusovaya River in the Middle Urals is located in two faunal areas: the forest mid-Ural and mountain Ural faunal areas. The climate of these territories is continental. The soils in the first area are podzolic, in some places sandy loam and sandy. 62% of the territory is covered with forests. Along with spruce-fir, pine, and mixed forests, there are forests with an admixture of broad-leaved species. Along the river valleys, mixed-grass meadows are common. In the second area the soils are podzolic, soddy-podzolic. Large areas (up to 70%) are occupied by forests, mainly pine. Significant areas are swamped.

In the Urals, the common hedgehog is quite widespread: from the southern tip to 60◦30′ n. w. It is found in the steppe, forest-steppe and forest zones of the mountain forest Urals, in the Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals.

Lifestyle. The hedgehog is a typical inhabitant of deciduous and mixed forests (in the Middle Urals it is also found in coniferous forests), forest-steppes and steppes. Favorite habitats are forest edges, clearings, forest clearings, in the steppe zone of the Southern Urals, non-marsh bushes along river valleys and thickets of weeds near populated areas.

The basis of a hedgehog's diet is animal food: various insects, earthworms, small mouse-like rodents, eggs and chicks of birds nesting on the ground, and partly lizards and frogs. Plant foods (fruits) play a secondary role.

Hedgehogs breed once a year. Mating occurs in April (in the Southern Urals in the first half of the month, in the Middle Urals in the second). Pregnancy lasts about 7 weeks. Juveniles in numbers from 2 to 8 appear in May–June. Hedgehogs are born blind and naked, their eyes open by 20 days of age. In September–November they hibernate. Hibernation is carried out on the surface of the earth, buried in leaves, or in specially dug holes up to 70 cm deep. They awaken from hibernation after the snow melts - in April.

Eared hedgehog – Hemiechinus auritus Gmel (1770)

The long-eared hedgehog is common in the steppes of the southern Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals.

Lifestyle. The biology and economic importance of the eared hedgehog in the Urals have not been studied. From literary sources it is known that it lives in dry steppes and semi-deserts. It feeds mainly on insects and small vertebrates. The breeding season is extended. Pregnant females and newly born calves are found from early spring to mid-summer. There are 4–7 young in a litter. The long-eared hedgehog is active at dusk and at night; in October – November it goes into hibernation.

Desmana moschata L (1758)

The modern range of the muskrat occupies the territory lying between 55 - 56◦ N. w. and 54 - 56◦ in. d.

Lifestyle. The muskrat lives in floodplain lakes, oxbow lakes and creeks of the river. Belaya and its tributaries, in areas with slow flows that do not freeze to the bottom in winter, with well-developed aquatic and coastal vegetation, with banks convenient for making burrows in which it finds refuge. The muskrat feeds mainly on animal food: insects and their larvae, worms, mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish. Among plants, it eats reeds, reeds and other aquatic and coastal plants. Reproduction of the muskrat in Bashkiria has not been studied.

Obviously, there are two litters during the year: the first in April, the second in September - October. The number of young in the litter is from 1 to 5.

Common mole – Talpa europaea L (1758)

The common mole is widespread in all zones of the Urals, in the Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals.

Lifestyle. The mole lives in forests, meadows, vegetable gardens, and orchards. Avoids wetlands and sandy soils. It feeds on various invertebrate animals, especially earthworms and insects. It breeds in the Urals twice a year, but only 20-25% of adult females have a second litter. The first litter is in May, the second in August, the number of young in the litter is up to 10 (V.N. Pavlinin, 1951). During the year, the mole molts three times; spring, summer and autumn. In spring and autumn there is a complete change of hair, in summer - partial.

Hare – hare – Lepus timidus L (1758)

The white hare is distributed throughout the Urals.

Lifestyle. The white hare is a typical forest animal. It lives in forests of various types, but is found in forest-steppe and steppe, most often in forests with well-developed undergrowth and herbaceous vegetation, in overgrown burnt areas.

In the forest-steppe and steppe zones, the mountain hare is common in forest clumps among fields, in shrub thickets along river valleys, in the tundra and forest-tundra it adheres to areas with the presence of shrub vegetation.

The white hare feeds mainly on herbaceous vegetation in summer; in winter, its main food is bark and young shoots of trees and shrubs. It breeds in the Urals several times a year. In Severny and Polarny, obviously, no more than two. The number of hares in a litter is from 2 to 7, usually 3-5. During the year, the hare molts twice - in spring and autumn. Spring molting occurs from late March to April, autumn molting occurs in October and ends in November.

Horse hare – Lepus europaeus Pall (1878)

In the Urals, the brown hare spreads in the steppe and forest-steppe zones, although in some places it penetrates into the forest zone. Almost never found in mountain areas.

Lifestyle. The brown hare settles mainly in open spaces: grass-forb steppes, steppe urems, steppe birch forests with shrub undergrowth, in ravines and ravines. In the forest-steppe zone it is found in fields, meadows, forest groves, and at the edge of the forest. In the forest zone it is closely associated with fields, bushes and small forests near fields and along river valleys; it is found along forest edges, in forest clearings and burnt areas, and sometimes in the depths of thinned forests. The hare feeds on a variety of herbaceous vegetation in the summer, and in the winter on dried grass, winter crops in the fields, weed seeds, bark, branches and young shoots of shrub and tree vegetation. During the year, the female brings two litters (the third is an exception) from 3 to 6 hares in each.

Common squirrel – Sciurus vulgaris L (1776)

In the Urals, the squirrel is widespread throughout the forest zone, found in the forest-steppe zone and in island forests.

Lifestyle. The squirrel is a typical inhabitant of coniferous and deciduous forests. Lives in hollows and nests. The nest (“gayno”) is spherical in shape, its diameter is 35 - 50 cm. The building materials for the nest are thin branches, moss, warty lichen, litter - wool, feathers. The nest is most often located near the edges of forests, clearings, and roads at a height of 3 to 20 m from the ground; squirrels often have spare nests. Leads a daily lifestyle. Spends the night in a hollow or in a nest. In winter, during severe frosts and snowstorms, it does not leave the nest for a long time. It moves well on the ground, climbs trees well, easily jumping from tree to tree. The squirrel feeds mainly on the seeds of coniferous trees: cedar, larch, fir, spruce and pine, eats buds and shoots of deciduous trees, less often coniferous trees, and lichens. In summer, a variety of mushrooms, berries and animal food (beetles, ants) play a significant role in the squirrels’ diet. For the winter he stores food reserves (pine nuts, acorns, mushrooms). Squirrels usually breed 2 times a year.

River beaver – Castor fiber L (1758)

The predatory exploitation of beaver reserves has led to its almost complete disappearance in the Urals; as a result of acclimatization over the past thirty years, the beaver has appeared in the reservoirs of a number of regions. Although the beaver is now found in many reservoirs in the Urals zone, its numbers remain low.

Lifestyle. Beavers settle along the banks of forest slow-flowing rivers and lakes rich in tree (mostly deciduous), shrub and wetland vegetation. They live in burrows and huts (burrows are dug in raised banks, and huts are built on low, swampy shores and in shallow water). Dams are built to maintain a constant water level in the river. Beavers feed on leaves, thin branches and bark of trees and shrubs, especially aspen, willow, birch, as well as a variety of wetland plants (sedge, horsetail, marigold, cattail, reed, water lily, etc.). For the winter they make food reserves, which are stored in the water near their homes.

Muskrat – Ondatra zibethica L (1776)

During the period from 1930 to the present, the muskrat has acclimatized in all regions and republics of the Urals zone.

Lifestyle. The muskrat lives in a wide variety of standing or slow-flowing water bodies that do not freeze in winter: rivers, streams, lakes and even swamps, rich in wetland vegetation - reeds, reeds, cattails, watches, sedges, horsetails, water lilies, pondweeds, elodea, as well as mollusks and crayfish. It avoids settling in fast-flowing rivers, in open parts of lakes and near rocky shores. There is also little of it in reservoirs with variable water levels. Lives in huts and burrows. In the banks raised above the water level, it digs complex burrows with exits into the water, with nesting and feeding chambers located above the water level. It builds huts in reservoirs with low flooded banks. Inside the hut there is a nest, a feeding chamber and passages. The nest and feeding chamber are always located above the water level. The muskrat feeds mainly on wetland vegetation (cattails, reeds, reeds, horsetail). In addition to plant foods, the muskrat feeds on crayfish and mollusks. Breeds from April to September. Pregnancy lasts about 25 days. The number of cubs in a litter ranges from 3 to 11 (usually 6-7).

Wolf – Canis Lupus L (1758)

In the Urals, the wolf is distributed throughout the entire territory. The greatest number of wolves is observed in the tundra, forest-steppe and steppe, the smallest in the taiga.

Lifestyle. The wolf is an inhabitant of various landscapes: tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, forest-steppe and steppe. Avoids extensive forest areas and settles in them mainly along river valleys. It makes lairs in the most remote, inaccessible places, sometimes using the holes of other animals. Leads a nomadic lifestyle. It feeds mainly on food of animal origin: wild ungulates, domestic animals, hares, rodents, and less often reptiles and birds. Eats all kinds of carrion.

Common fox – Vulpes vulpes L (1758)

In the Urals, the fox is distributed throughout the entire territory, in all zones, starting from the southern tip of the Urals to the northern seas.

Lifestyle. The fox lives in the tundra, taiga, forest-steppe, steppe and mountains. In the forest zone it is more often found along river valleys, in agricultural areas - near populated areas. Lives in burrows located on dry hills with sandy soil, on the slopes of ravines, river banks, and often uses abandoned burrows of other animals, such as badgers, and various natural shelters. Active throughout the day. The fox feeds on a variety of foods, mainly animal, and partly plant. Its main food items are mouse-like rodents, hares, shrews, birds, and, to a lesser extent, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, berries, and fruits. The number of young in a litter is usually 3–5, rarely up to 10.

Arctic fox – Alopex lagopus L (1758)

The Arctic fox is distributed in the tundra and forest-tundra of the Polar Urals north of 66˚30΄ N

Lifestyle. The arctic fox lives in the tundra and forest-tundra in places with rugged terrain suitable for making burrows, and inhabits river valleys, lake shores and sea coasts with the richest food supply. Lives in burrows. Nesting burrows are characterized by the complexity of their structure. It feeds on lemmings, voles, birds, their eggs and sea waste (fish, sea urchins, crustaceans, mollusks). Rutting in March - April. Pregnancy lasts 51–54 days. Whelping in May – June. The number of cubs in the litter is from 3 to 18.

Brown bear – Upsus arctos L (1768)

The brown bear in the Urals is distributed throughout the forest zone, especially in the Northern Urals. From the taiga in summer it enters the forest-tundra and tundra.

Lifestyle. The bear is a typical inhabitant of the taiga. It is found in a variety of habitats, but usually sticks to the most remote areas of the old forest with windbreaks, burnt areas, with abundant growth of deciduous trees and grasses, along the banks of forest rivers and streams, with rich raspberry thickets. In the Urals, many bears migrate from the western to the eastern slopes in the fall, and return back to the western slopes in the spring and summer. In the Northern Urals in the summer, to escape from midges, bears from the taiga go out into the tundra of the mountain range. The bear is an omnivore. It feeds on both animal and plant food. Among animals, it eats insects, amphibians, birds, small mammals, and also attacks ungulates: moose, reindeer, roe deer, livestock; Among plants, it eats the stems and roots of various herbs, raspberries, blueberries, lingonberries, and in the Northern Urals, in the Trans-Urals - pine nuts. Rutting season in the Middle Urals in June. The number of cubs in a litter is from 1 to 4, usually 2.

Ermine – Mustela erminea L (1758)

Ermine is widespread throughout the Urals from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the southern tip of the Ural Mountains.

Lifestyle. The ermine is unpretentious in choosing places. It is found in the tundra of the Polar Urals in thickets of bushes, in the forest zone - most often in forest areas alternating with clearings; in forest clearings, old cluttered burnt areas, in forest meadows, along forest river valleys, along the banks of forest lakes; in forest-steppe areas - in groves among fields, thickets of bushes and reeds along the banks of reservoirs; in the steppe zone - in the floodplains of rivers and lakes. The ermine’s home is heaps of stones and brushwood, hollows, trees lying on the ground, and burrows of various rodents. It feeds mainly on small mammals and birds, frogs, small fish and insects. The number of cubs in a litter ranges from 3 to 8.

Weasel – Mustela nivalis L (1758)

In the Urals, weasels are ubiquitous.

Lifestyle. The weasel lives in a wide variety of landscapes: forest zone, forest-steppe and steppe. It is found in bush thickets along the banks of rivers, lakes, in forests, in cutting areas and burnt areas, on the edges of forests, in forest meadows, in fields, and in populated areas. Lives in rodent burrows or uses natural shelters. It feeds mainly on mouse-like rodents and insectivores, partly on birds and amphibians. It hunts rodents not only on the surface of the earth, but also in burrows, where it easily penetrates and destroys as many of them as it encounters. When there is an excess of food, it makes reserves. The reproduction of weasels in the Urals has not been studied.

Columbum – Mustela sibiricus Pall (1773)

In the Urals, kolonka is quite widespread.

Lifestyle. The Siberian weasel lives both in mountain forests and in lowland forests, where it adheres to areas with dense undergrowth and overmature trees, the edges of swamps and river banks. In forest-steppe areas it is found in island forests, forests, shrubs and reed thickets along river and lake valleys. The nest is made in holes, under the roots of trees, in the hollows of trees fallen to the ground, under piles of brushwood. Leads a twilight and nocturnal lifestyle. In the Urals it feeds mainly on small mouse-like rodents, water voles, hamsters, gophers, hares, birds, frogs and fish.

Black or forest polecat – Mustela putorius L (1758)

In the Urals zone, the black polecat is currently widespread, mainly in the Cis-Urals.

Lifestyle. The black polecat is more often found in the zone of mixed and deciduous forests, in clearings, along river valleys, in thickets of bushes, in forest meadows, in fields, and in populated areas. For housing, it often uses a variety of shelters: piles of brushwood, hollows of trees lying on the ground, piles of stones, voids under roots, in haystacks. It feeds mainly on mouse-like rodents, insectivores, birds, and eats amphibians and fish.

Light or steppe polecat - Mustela eversmanni Less (1827)

The light polecat in the Urals is widespread in the steppe and forest-steppe zones, but in some places it penetrates far into the forest zone.

Lifestyle. The light ferret is an inhabitant of open steppe and forest-steppe areas, meadows, and fallow lands. In the forest zone it is found in mixed forests, in river floodplains and near populated areas. It lives in burrows of simple structure, often occupying the burrows of other animals, for example, gophers, hamsters, and sometimes uses natural shelters - hollows of trees lying on the ground, in the voids between tree roots and under buildings. Leads a twilight and nocturnal lifestyle. It feeds on small mammals, mainly rodents, but also eats birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and insects. Estrus is observed at the end of February - in March.

European mink – Mustela lutreola L (1766)

The European mink is widespread in the Urals, mainly in the Cis-Ural region, and in smaller numbers in the Trans-Ural region.

Lifestyle. The existence of mink is associated with the presence of bodies of water. It is usually found along the banks of small rivers and streams that do not dry out completely in summer and do not freeze in winter, with steep banks replete with voids under an overhanging layer of turf. Mink can also be found along the shores of lakes overgrown with bushes and reeds. Lives in burrows of a simple structure, often using the burrows of other animals or natural shelters, for example: hollows of trees lying on the banks, piles of brushwood, etc. It feeds mainly on animals whose life is connected with the body of water where it lives: fish, frogs, water voles , small rodents, and occasionally birds.

American mink – Mustela vicon Briss (1756)

For the purpose of acclimatization, the American mink was kept in the period from 1934 to 1962. was released into water bodies of a number of regions of the Urals.

The lifestyle of the American mink is similar to that of the European mink, but its reproduction in nature has been studied much less well.

Sable – Martes zibellina L (1758)

In the past, sable was quite widespread in the Urals.

Lifestyle. Sable is a typical inhabitant of both lowland and mountain taiga. It is more often found in the most remote, cluttered areas of spruce and cedar forests, as well as in old burnt areas. In the mountains it lives in thickets of cedar. Active at night. For housing it uses: tree hollows, voids between stones and under tree roots. It feeds mainly on mouse-like rodents and pine nuts, and partly on birds, squirrels, insects, and berries. The duration of pregnancy lasts about 10 months. The young, numbering from 1 to 7, will be born in mid-April.

Marten – Martes martes L (1758)

In the Urals, marten is quite widespread.

Lifestyle. The pine marten is a typical forest inhabitant. Prefers old, overmature, cluttered forests with a large number of hollow trees. Active at dusk and at night. It feeds mainly on mouse-like rodents, squirrels, hares, insectivores, birds, insects, and berries. The duration of pregnancy lasts 230-275 days. Birth of young in April-May. The number of cubs in a litter is from 2 to 6 (usually 2-3).

Wolverine – Gulo gulo L (1758)

Wolverine is common in the tundra and forest zones of the Polar, Northern and Middle Urals.

Lifestyle. Wolverine is a typical inhabitant of the taiga and tundra. Rock crevices and depressions under tree roots serve as shelter. Leads a predominantly crepuscular and nocturnal lifestyle. It feeds on animal food, in winter - mainly on mammals: ungulates (elk, wild reindeer), hares, rodents, carnivores (fox, marten, lynx), grouse birds, and also eats pine nuts. The duration of pregnancy is 8-9 months. The number of cubs in the litter is 2-3. During the year, the wolverine has two molts - in spring and autumn.

Badger – Meles meles L (1758)

The badger is distributed in the Northern, Middle and Southern Urals, as well as in the Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals.

Lifestyle. In the Urals, the badger lives in coniferous, mixed deciduous forests, forest-steppe and steppe, both in the mountains and on the plain. Active at night and at dusk. Lives in burrows of complex structure. In autumn, with the onset of cold weather, the badger hibernates. The badger feeds on both animal and plant foods. Pregnancy lasts about a year. The young are born in spring or early summer. The number of cubs in a litter is from 2 to 6. Molting occurs once a year - in summer.

Otter – Lutra lutra L (1758)

In the Urals, the otter is widespread throughout the taiga zone.

Lifestyle. The life of an otter is closely connected with water bodies. Usually active at night, but sometimes hunts during the day. Simple burrows serve as its home. It feeds on fish, frogs, waterfowl, voles, and shrews. The number of young in the litter is 2.

Lynx – Lynx lynx L (1758)

In the Urals, lynx is widespread in the taiga and forest-steppe zones.

Lifestyle. Lynx is a typical inhabitant of deep, tall forests. Hunts in the early morning hours or at dusk. The lynx feeds mainly on white hares, mouse-like rodents. Pregnancy lasts 9-10 weeks. Juveniles in numbers from 2 to 4 appear at night.

Roe deer – Caprioles caprioles L (1758)

Roe deer are quite widespread in the Urals.

Lifestyle. Roe deer are found in taiga and forest-steppe zones; in small numbers they penetrate into steppe regions. Avoids dense dark coniferous forests, preferring mixed and deciduous forests. It feeds on a variety of herbaceous plants, shoots, leaves, pine needles, lichens, fruits, berries and mushrooms.

Elk – Alces alces L (1758)

Currently, elk are quite widespread in the Urals. In the ridge part of the Urals it occurs from the northern border of the forest to the southern tip of the Urals.

Lifestyle. Elk is a typical forest animal - an outdated opinion. Now it lives both in the forest zone, and in the forest-steppe and even in the steppe, and in the north it enters the tundra. In the forest zone of the Northern and Middle Urals, elk live in lowland and mountain forests. It adheres to wetlands, river valleys, lake margins, old clearings and burnt areas overgrown with aspen, birch, and dense grass. In the southern Urals, elk are common in upland broad-leaved, pine-birch-larch forests, in upland forest-steppe with broad-leaved forests, in aspen-birch forests, and in deep ravines. The diet of moose has a well-defined seasonal change in food. In winter, the moose's diet consists of trees and shrubs. Birch bark and branches are readily eaten; woody lichens, and sometimes hay. In the spring and summer, plants of the herbaceous-shrub layer predominate in the diet of elk.

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